The question of “When Was The Printing Press Developed” doesn’t have a simple answer rooted in a single date or inventor. The story of the printing press is a fascinating journey across continents and centuries, marked by incremental innovations and diverse cultural contributions. While it’s commonly associated with Johannes Gutenberg and 15th-century Europe, the origins of printing technology stretch back much further, primarily to China.
Early Innovations in China: The Cradle of Printing
The earliest forms of printing emerged in China during the first millennium A.D., long before Gutenberg’s era. Although we cannot pinpoint the exact moment or individual who first conceived the idea, historical evidence points to China as the birthplace of printing technology.
One of the most significant artifacts from this period is the Diamond Sutra. This Buddhist scripture, discovered in Dunhuang, China, dates back to around 868 A.D., during the Tang Dynasty. It is recognized as the oldest complete printed book known to exist.
The Diamond Sutra, the world’s oldest complete printed book, originating from Dunhuang, China during the Tang Dynasty, showcasing early Chinese printing technology.
The Diamond Sutra was created using block printing. This technique involved meticulously carving text and illustrations in reverse onto wooden blocks. These blocks were then inked and pressed onto paper to produce copies. Numerous other printed materials from Dunhuang have survived from this era, including calendars (one from around A.D. 877), mathematical charts, vocabulary guides, etiquette manuals, funeral and wedding guides, educational materials for children, dictionaries, and almanacs. This abundance of printed material indicates a thriving early printing culture in China.
During this period of early printing development, a significant shift occurred in book formats. The traditional rolled-up scrolls began to be replaced by texts in book form, resembling the codices we recognize today. Woodblock printing was not confined to China; it also flourished in Japan and Korea during this time. Furthermore, the development of metal block printing, though less common than woodblock, also emerged in this period, primarily for the reproduction of Buddhist and Taoist texts.
Bi Sheng and Moveable Type: A Step Towards Efficiency
While block printing allowed for the mass production of texts, it was a laborious process, requiring a new block for each page. A revolutionary innovation came in the form of moveable type. This system replaced entire printing blocks with individual characters that could be rearranged and reused, offering greater flexibility and efficiency.
The invention of moveable type is attributed to Bi Sheng, a Chinese artisan from Yingshan, Hubei province. Bi Sheng lived approximately from 970 to 1051 A.D. His pioneering moveable type system utilized clay. He carved individual characters into clay, which were then baked to harden them into durable blocks. These hardened clay characters could be arranged in a frame, inked, and pressed to print.
Bi Sheng, a pivotal figure in printing history, developed movable type using baked clay, as illustrated, paving the way for more efficient printing methods.
The earliest written account of Bi Sheng’s moveable type system comes from the Dream Pool Essays, authored in 1086 by the renowned scientist Shen Kuo. Shen Kuo noted that Bi Sheng favored baked clay over wood for his type because wood’s texture was inconsistent, absorbed moisture too readily, and posed issues with ink adhesion. Baked clay, on the other hand, proved to be more durable and easier to clean for reuse.
By the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279 A.D.), the impact of printing was evident in Chinese society. Books became more widespread, contributing to the growth of a scholarly class capable of serving in civil service positions. Large collections of printed books also became symbols of status and wealth among the elite.
Wang Chen and Wood Type Revival: Enhancing Efficiency
Despite Bi Sheng’s clay moveable type, wood remained a significant material in printing. In 1297, Wang Chen, a magistrate of Ching-te, revitalized wood type printing. To print his treatise on agriculture and farming practices, Nung Shu, Wang Chen refined the process of wood type creation, making the wood more durable and precise for printing.
Wang Chen’s innovation extended beyond just improving the wood type itself. He also devised a revolving table for typesetters. This ingenious invention significantly improved the organization and efficiency of typesetting, leading to faster printing speeds.
Wang Chen’s innovative revolving table for typesetters, enhancing the organization and speed of wood type composition, as depicted in historical illustrations.
Nung Shu, printed using Wang Chen’s improved woodblock type and efficient typesetting methods, is considered the world’s first mass-produced book. Notably, Nung Shu was exported to Europe and documented numerous Chinese inventions that are often mistakenly attributed to European origins. Wang Chen’s woodblock type method continued to be used by printers in China for centuries.
Johannes Gutenberg: The Printing Revolution in Europe
While printing had been flourishing in Asia for centuries, it was not until the mid-15th century that the printing press emerged in Europe. Johannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith and inventor, is credited with developing a printing press in Europe around 1440. Exiled from Mainz, Germany, Gutenberg began experimenting with printing in Strasbourg. He later returned to Mainz, and by 1450, he had perfected his printing machine and was ready to commercialize it – the Gutenberg press.
Johannes Gutenberg, the European inventor of the printing press, portrayed in his workshop, highlighting his pivotal role in the printing revolution in the West.
Gutenberg’s genius lay in adapting and integrating existing technologies with novel innovations to create a truly revolutionary printing system. Key to Gutenberg’s design was the shift from wood to metal for the type. He developed moveable metal type in Europe, drawing inspiration from the concept of reusable individual characters but realizing it with more durable and precise metal.
To produce type in large quantities and for multiple printing projects, Gutenberg applied the principle of replica casting. He created letter molds in reverse in brass. Molten lead was then poured into these molds to create numerous identical and durable metal type pieces. Researchers speculate that Gutenberg may have used a sand-casting system, utilizing carved sand to form the metal molds. The letters were meticulously designed to fit together uniformly, creating straight lines and consistent columns on the printed page.
Gutenberg also innovated in other crucial aspects of printing. He developed his own oil-based ink, specifically formulated to adhere to metal type, unlike water-based inks used for woodblocks. Furthermore, he adapted a winepress, commonly used for pressing grapes and olives, into his printing press design, perfecting a method for applying even pressure to flatten paper for printing.
The Gutenberg Bible and the Dawn of Mass Communication
Gutenberg secured funding from Johannes Fust to finance his ambitious printing project. In 1452, Fust joined Gutenberg as a partner. Their initial printed works included calendars, pamphlets, and other ephemeral materials. However, in 1452, Gutenberg achieved a monumental feat: the printing of the Gutenberg Bible.
An exquisite page from the Gutenberg Bible, exemplifying the high quality and artistry of early European printing and typography.
It’s estimated that Gutenberg produced around 180 copies of the 1,300-page Gutenberg Bible, with approximately 60 printed on vellum (calfskin parchment). Each page contained 42 lines of text in Gothic type, arranged in double columns, with some letters highlighted in color. The production of the Bible was an immense undertaking, requiring 300 separate molded letter blocks and 50,000 sheets of paper. Fragments and complete copies of the Gutenberg Bible have survived to this day, with 21 complete paper copies and four complete vellum copies known to exist.
The Legacy of Gutenberg and the Spread of Printing
In 1455, Johannes Fust foreclosed on Gutenberg, leading to a lawsuit where Gutenberg lost his printing equipment to Fust and Peter Schoffer. Despite this setback, Gutenberg is believed to have continued printing, possibly producing an edition of the Catholicon, a Latin dictionary, in 1460. However, Gutenberg ceased printing efforts after 1460, likely due to declining eyesight. He passed away in 1468.
Peter Schoffer, taking possession of Gutenberg’s press, proved to be an exceptionally skilled printer and typographer, arguably surpassing Gutenberg in technical expertise. Within two years of acquiring the press, Schoffer produced an acclaimed edition of The Book of Psalms, featuring a three-color title page and diverse typefaces within the book. This edition is also notable for including a colophon, a section detailing publication information, for the first time in history. Ten copies of Schoffer’s edition of The Book of Psalms are known to still exist.
The printing trade rapidly expanded across Europe, fueled by German printers who had trained with Gutenberg and subsequently disseminated their knowledge. Italy was the next European country to embrace printing, with the printing press arriving in 1465. By 1470, Italian printers had established a thriving printed materials trade. German printers were invited to Paris in 1470 to set up presses at the Sorbonne, primarily printing textbooks for students. By 1476, other German printers had established private printing businesses in Paris. Spain welcomed German printers in Valencia in 1473, and printing spread to Barcelona by 1475. Portugal invited printers to Lisbon in 1495.
Printing arrived in England in 1476 with William Caxton, an Englishman who had lived in Bruges (Belgium). Caxton learned printing in Cologne in 1471 and established a press in Bruges to publish his own translations. Upon returning to England, he set up a press in Westminster Abbey, serving as a printer for the monarchy until his death in 1491.
The Transformative Impact of the Printing Press
The widespread adoption of the printing press had profound and lasting consequences, fundamentally altering the course of history. The increased availability of printed materials led to a greater dissemination of ideas, challenging established power structures in Europe.
In 1501, Pope Alexander VI threatened excommunication for anyone printing manuscripts without Church approval, recognizing the potential threat to religious authority. However, two decades later, the writings of Martin Luther and John Calvin spread rapidly through print, realizing the Pope’s fears and contributing to the Protestant Reformation. Further challenging traditional doctrines, Nicolaus Copernicus’s publication of On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres in 1543, proposing a heliocentric model of the universe, was met with resistance from the Church.
By 1605, the first official newspaper, Relation, was printed and distributed in Strasbourg. Newspapers proliferated across Europe, solidifying the printing press’s role in fostering literacy, education, and access to uniform information for ordinary people. The printing press revolutionized communication, knowledge sharing, and ultimately, the development of modern society.
In conclusion, answering “when was the printing press developed” requires acknowledging a long and multifaceted history. While Gutenberg’s press in the mid-15th century marked a pivotal moment in Europe, the foundational innovations of printing technology originated in China centuries earlier. From block printing to moveable type, and from clay to metal, the journey of the printing press is a testament to human ingenuity and its transformative power to shape the world.
Sources:
The Invention of Printing. Theodore Low De Vinne.
500 Years of Printing. S.H. Steinberg.
Printer’s Error: An Irreverent History of Books. Rebecca Romney.
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham, Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin.
Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Patricia Buckley Ebrey.
