The question of “who invented the printing press” doesn’t have a simple answer. While Johannes Gutenberg is widely credited with this groundbreaking invention in Europe, the story of printing is much older and richer, with roots in China centuries before Gutenberg’s time. Exploring the history of the printing press reveals a fascinating journey of innovation across continents and cultures.
The earliest forms of printing emerged in China during the first millennium A.D. It’s impossible to pinpoint a single inventor or a precise date, but the evidence points to China as the birthplace of printing technology.
Early Printing in China: Block Printing Pioneers
The oldest known printed text is The Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist scripture discovered in Dunhuang, China, dating back to around 868 A.D. during the Tang Dynasty. This remarkable artifact is considered the world’s oldest complete printed book and showcases the sophisticated technique of block printing already in use at that time.
Block printing involved carving text and images in reverse onto wooden blocks. These blocks were then inked and pressed onto paper to create printed pages. Numerous other printed materials from Dunhuang have survived from this era, including calendars (one from 877 A.D.), mathematical charts, vocabulary guides, etiquette manuals, funeral and wedding guides, educational materials for children, dictionaries, and almanacs. This diverse range of printed items demonstrates the breadth of early printing applications in China.
This period also witnessed a shift in book formats, with rolled-up scrolls gradually being replaced by book-formatted texts, making information more accessible and portable. Woodblock printing techniques spread to Japan and Korea, and metal block printing also emerged during this era, primarily for religious texts.
Bi Sheng and Moveable Type: A Step Towards Efficiency
A pivotal development in printing technology was the invention of moveable type by Bi Sheng, who lived in China from approximately 970 to 1051 A.D. Moveable type revolutionized printing by replacing entire wood blocks with individual, reusable characters. This innovation allowed for faster typesetting and the rearrangement of characters for different texts.
Bi Sheng’s initial moveable type was crafted from clay, which was then baked to harden. These clay characters were arranged on an iron frame and pressed against an iron plate to create prints. The earliest record of Bi Sheng’s invention comes from Dream Pool Essays, a book written in 1086 by the scientist Shen Kuo. Shen Kuo detailed Bi Sheng’s process and noted that Bi Sheng chose clay over wood due to wood’s inconsistent texture, moisture absorption, and ink adhesion issues. Baked clay provided a more durable and reusable material.
By the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279 A.D.), the impact of printing was evident in Chinese society. Books became more widespread, contributing to the growth of a scholarly class capable of serving as civil servants. Large book collections also became symbols of wealth and status among the elite.
Wang Chen and Wooden Moveable Type Refinement
While Bi Sheng’s clay type was significant, wood type experienced a resurgence in 1297 thanks to Wang Chen, a magistrate of Ching-te. Wang Chen, seeking to improve agricultural knowledge dissemination, printed Nung Shu, a comprehensive treatise on agriculture and farming practices.
Wang Chen made crucial advancements in wood type technology. He developed methods to enhance the durability and precision of wood type. Furthermore, he invented a revolving table for typesetters, significantly improving the efficiency and speed of typesetting.
Nung Shu is recognized as the world’s first mass-produced book. Remarkably, it documented numerous Chinese inventions that have often been mistakenly attributed to European origins, highlighting the advanced state of Chinese technology at the time. Wang Chen’s refined woodblock type method continued to be used by printers in China for centuries.
Johannes Gutenberg: Revolutionizing Printing in Europe
In Europe, the printing press emerged approximately 150 years after Wang Chen’s innovations. Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith and inventor from Mainz, Germany, played the pivotal role in developing a printing press that would transform European society and beyond. Exiled from Mainz, Gutenberg began experimenting with printing in Strasbourg around 1440. He later returned to Mainz and, by 1450, had perfected a printing machine ready for commercial use: the Gutenberg press.
The Gutenberg Press: Metal Type and Mechanical Innovation
Gutenberg’s genius lay in adapting and combining existing technologies with new innovations. A key aspect of his design was the shift from wood to metal for both the press itself and the printing type. He adopted the concept of moveable type but created a European version using metal, which proved to be more durable and produced sharper prints than wood or clay.
To produce large quantities of uniform type, Gutenberg employed replica casting. He created letter molds in reverse in brass and then used these molds to cast replicas from molten lead. Some researchers believe Gutenberg might have used a sand-casting system, utilizing carved sand to create the metal molds. The letters were meticulously designed to fit together uniformly, creating straight lines and consistent columns on the page.
Gutenberg also developed a specialized oil-based ink that adhered effectively to metal type, unlike the water-based inks used in woodblock printing. Furthermore, he adapted a winepress, commonly used for pressing grapes and olives, to flatten the printing paper, creating a mechanical press that applied even pressure for clear and consistent impressions.
The Gutenberg Bible: A Landmark of Early Printing
To finance his ambitious project, Gutenberg borrowed money from Johannes Fust. In 1452, Fust joined Gutenberg as a partner, and together they began printing various materials, including calendars and pamphlets.
In 1452, Gutenberg’s press produced its most famous work: the Gutenberg Bible. It is estimated that around 180 copies of this monumental 1,300-page Bible were printed, with approximately 60 on vellum. Each page featured 42 lines of text in Gothic type, double columns, and some letters in color.
The Gutenberg Bible required 300 distinct molded letter blocks and 50,000 sheets of paper, representing a massive undertaking for the time. Many fragments of these Bibles still exist, and 21 complete copies of the Gutenberg Bible survive today, along with four complete vellum copies, testaments to the enduring legacy of this early printed masterpiece.
Gutenberg’s Later Life and Legacy
In 1455, financial difficulties led to Fust foreclosing on Gutenberg. A subsequent lawsuit resulted in Gutenberg losing his printing equipment to Fust and Peter Schoffer, Fust’s son-in-law and a former calligrapher.
Despite this setback, Gutenberg is believed to have continued printing, possibly producing an edition of the Catholicon, a Latin dictionary, in 1460. However, Gutenberg ceased printing activities after 1460, possibly due to declining eyesight. He died in 1468, but his invention had already set in motion a revolution in communication and knowledge dissemination.
Peter Schoffer: Advancing Gutenberg’s Innovation
Peter Schoffer quickly capitalized on Gutenberg’s press after acquiring it. He is considered to have been a technically superior printer and typographer compared to Gutenberg. Within two years of taking over the press, Schoffer produced an acclaimed edition of The Book of Psalms in 1457. This edition was notable for its three-color title page and the use of varying typefaces within the book, showcasing Schoffer’s advanced printing skills.
A significant innovation introduced by Schoffer in this edition was the colophon. The colophon, placed at the end of the book, provided publication details, a practice that has become standard in book publishing. Ten copies of Schoffer’s edition of The Book of Psalms are known to still exist, further illustrating the early success and impact of printing.
The Rapid Spread of Printing Across Europe
The printing trade expanded rapidly thanks to German printers, many of whom had worked with Gutenberg and then spread out to establish their own printing businesses and teach the craft to others.
After Germany, Italy became the next center for printing in Europe, with the printing press arriving in 1465. By 1470, Italian printers had established a thriving trade in printed materials.
German printers were invited to Paris in 1470 to set up presses at the Sorbonne. The university librarian selected books, primarily textbooks, to be printed for students. By 1476, other German printers had moved to Paris and established private printing companies.
Spain welcomed German printers in Valencia in 1473, and printing spread to Barcelona by 1475. Portugal invited printers to Lisbon in 1495.
Printing reached England in 1476 with William Caxton, an Englishman who had lived in Bruges (now in Belgium). Caxton learned to print in Cologne in 1471 to establish a press in Bruges and publish his own translations. Upon returning to England, he set up a press in Westminster Abbey, serving as a printer for the monarchy until his death in 1491.
The Printing Press: A World-Changing Invention
The widespread adoption of the printing press had a profound impact on the world. It facilitated the rapid dissemination of ideas, challenging established power structures in Europe.
In 1501, Pope Alexander VI threatened excommunication for anyone printing manuscripts without Church approval, recognizing the potential threat to Church authority. However, the printing press proved unstoppable. Two decades later, the works of John Calvin and Martin Luther spread widely, bringing about the very changes Alexander had feared and fueling the Protestant Reformation.
Further challenging traditional views, Nicolaus Copernicus’s On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, which presented a heliocentric model of the solar system, was published and circulated, challenging Church doctrine.
By 1605, the first official newspaper, Relation, was printed and distributed in Strasbourg. Newspapers proliferated across Europe, solidifying the printing press’s crucial role in promoting literacy, education, and the widespread availability of information to ordinary people. The printing press undeniably revolutionized communication, knowledge sharing, and the course of history.
Sources:
The Invention of Printing. Theodore Low De Vinne.
500 Years of Printing. S.H. Steinberg.
Printer’s Error: An Irreverent History of Books. Rebecca Romney.
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham, Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin.
Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Patricia Buckley Ebrey.
