The question of “Who Created The Printing Press” is more complex than it initially appears. While Johannes Gutenberg is widely credited with the invention, the story of the printing press is a rich tapestry of innovation spanning centuries and continents, with roots stretching far beyond 15th-century Germany. Understanding the true origins requires a journey back to ancient China, where the earliest forms of printing first emerged.
Early Innovations in China: Block Printing
Long before Gutenberg, China was at the forefront of printing technology. During the first millennium A.D., while Europe was still centuries away from mechanical printing, the Chinese were already producing texts using sophisticated methods. The oldest known printed text, The Diamond Sutra, a revered Buddhist scripture, stands as a testament to this early ingenuity. This book, discovered in Dunhuang, China, dates back to around 868 A.D., during the Tang Dynasty, showcasing block printing techniques in remarkable detail.
The Diamond Sutra and other texts unearthed in Dunhuang were created using block printing. This process involved meticulously carving characters and images in reverse onto wooden blocks. These blocks were then inked and pressed onto paper, effectively transferring the design. Evidence from Dunhuang reveals a diverse range of printed materials from this era, including calendars (one dating back to 877 A.D.), mathematical charts, vocabulary guides, etiquette manuals, funeral and wedding guides, educational materials for children, dictionaries, and almanacs. This period of early printing also marked a significant shift in book formats, as rolled scrolls began to give way to the book-formatted texts we recognize today. Block printing technology was not limited to China; it also flourished in Japan and Korea during this period. Furthermore, the development of metal block printing, primarily for Buddhist and Taoist texts, also emerged in East Asia during this era, demonstrating a continuous evolution of printing methods.
Bi Sheng and Movable Type: A Revolutionary Idea
While block printing was a significant advancement, it was the invention of movable type that truly revolutionized printing. This groundbreaking innovation is attributed to Bi Sheng, a Chinese artisan from Yingshan, Hubei province, who lived approximately from 970 to 1051 A.D. Bi Sheng’s ingenious idea was to replace entire wooden blocks with individual, reusable characters. His first movable type was crafted from clay, which was then baked to harden it. These individual clay characters could be arranged in a frame to form text, inked, and pressed to print. After printing, the type could be disassembled and reused for different texts, a significant leap in efficiency.
The earliest documented account of Bi Sheng’s movable type printing comes from Dream Pool Essays, a book written in 1086 by the renowned Chinese scientist Shen Kuo. Shen Kuo noted that Bi Sheng’s nephews inherited his typefaces after his death. Shen Kuo’s writings provide valuable insights into Bi Sheng’s choices, explaining that Bi Sheng opted for baked clay over wood due to wood’s inconsistent texture and tendency to warp with moisture, as well as the issue of ink adhesion and clean-up. Baked clay offered a more durable and reusable solution. By the time of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127 to 1279 A.D.), the impact of printing was evident in Chinese society. Books became increasingly common, fostering the growth of a scholarly class capable of entering civil service. Large collections of printed books also became status symbols among the wealthy elite, highlighting the growing importance of printed material.
Wang Chen’s Wood Type and Mass Production
Despite Bi Sheng’s clay movable type, wood type experienced a resurgence in 1297 thanks to Wang Chen, a magistrate of Ching-te. Wang Chen undertook the ambitious project of printing Nung Shu, a comprehensive treatise on agriculture and farming practices. To achieve this, Wang Chen refined the process of creating wood type, making it more durable and precise. He also designed a revolving table for typesetters, an organizational innovation that significantly improved efficiency and printing speed.
Nung Shu is considered a landmark achievement, often recognized as the world’s first mass-produced book. Its impact extended beyond China, as it was exported to Europe and, remarkably, documented numerous Chinese inventions that have historically been attributed to European origins. Wang Chen’s method of woodblock type printing continued to be employed by printers in China for centuries, demonstrating its practicality and longevity.
Johannes Gutenberg: Perfecting the Printing Press in Europe
While printing had a rich history in Asia, its arrival in Europe was transformative. It was Johannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith and inventor, who adapted and perfected printing technology in Europe in the mid-15th century. Exiled from his hometown of Mainz, Germany, due to political unrest, Gutenberg began experimenting with printing in Strasbourg (then part of the Holy Roman Empire) around 1440. He later returned to Mainz, and by 1450, he had developed a printing machine that was perfected for commercial use: the Gutenberg press.
Key Innovations of Gutenberg’s Press
Gutenberg’s genius lay in his ability to synthesize existing knowledge and introduce key innovations that made printing more efficient and accessible in Europe. A crucial aspect of his design was the shift from wood to metal for the movable type. Adapting the concept of movable type for the Latin alphabet, Gutenberg created the European version of this revolutionary technology. To produce type in large quantities and for repeated use, Gutenberg employed replica casting. He crafted letter molds in reverse in brass, and then used these molds to cast numerous replicas from molten lead. Researchers have suggested that Gutenberg may have utilized a sand-casting system, using carved sand to create the metal molds. The letters were meticulously designed to fit together uniformly, creating consistent lines and columns of text on the page.
Gutenberg also recognized that existing inks designed for woodblock printing were not suitable for metal type. He innovated by developing an oil-based ink that adhered effectively to metal surfaces. Furthermore, Gutenberg ingeniously adapted a winepress, traditionally used for pressing grapes and olives, into his printing press design. This adaptation provided the necessary pressure to transfer ink from the metal type to paper efficiently.
The Gutenberg Bible: A Landmark Publication
To finance his ambitious printing project, Gutenberg borrowed money from Johannes Fust. In 1452, Fust joined Gutenberg as a partner, forming a partnership to produce books. Their initial printing efforts included calendars, pamphlets, and other ephemeral materials. However, in 1452, Gutenberg achieved a monumental feat with the publication of the Gutenberg Bible. It is estimated that he printed around 180 copies of this 1,300-page masterpiece, with approximately 60 of them on vellum (calfskin parchment). Each page of the Gutenberg Bible contained 42 lines of text in Gothic type, presented in double columns and featuring some letters in color. The production of the Bible was a massive undertaking, requiring around 300 separate molded letter blocks and 50,000 sheets of paper. Fragments and complete copies of the Gutenberg Bible have survived to this day, with 21 complete paper copies and four complete vellum copies still in existence, testaments to the enduring legacy of this early printed book.
Gutenberg’s Later Years
Despite his groundbreaking invention, Gutenberg’s story took a turn in 1455 when Fust foreclosed on his loans. A subsequent lawsuit resulted in Gutenberg losing his printing equipment to Fust and Peter Schoffer of Gernsheim, Germany, a former calligrapher who had worked with Gutenberg. While Gutenberg’s printing press was seized, it is believed he continued printing, possibly producing an edition of the Catholicon, a Latin dictionary, in 1460. However, Gutenberg ceased printing activities after 1460, possibly due to declining eyesight. He passed away in 1468.
Peter Schoffer
Peter Schoffer, having acquired Gutenberg’s press, quickly demonstrated his skills, proving to be a technically proficient printer and typographer, perhaps even surpassing Gutenberg in these aspects. Within two years of taking over the press, Schoffer produced a highly acclaimed edition of The Book of Psalms. This edition was notable for its three-color title page and the use of varying typefaces within the book. A significant innovation introduced by Schoffer in this edition was the inclusion of a colophon, a section in a book detailing publication information, a feature used for the first time in history. Ten copies of Schoffer’s edition of The Book of Psalms are known to survive.
The Rapid Spread of Printing Across Europe
The impact of Gutenberg’s invention was amplified by the rapid dissemination of printing technology across Europe. German printers who had worked with Gutenberg in his early experiments played a key role, becoming itinerant printers who spread the craft and trained others. Following Germany, Italy became the next European nation to embrace printing, with the printing press arriving in 1465. By 1470, Italian printers had established a thriving trade in printed materials. German printers were invited to set up presses at the Sorbonne in Paris in 1470. The librarian at the Sorbonne curated books for printing, primarily textbooks for students. By 1476, other German printers had moved to Paris and established private printing businesses. Spain welcomed German printers in Valencia in 1473, with printing spreading to Barcelona by 1475. In 1495, Portugal invited printers to Lisbon.
Printing reached England in 1476 through William Caxton, an Englishman who had spent years in Bruges (present-day Belgium). Caxton traveled to Cologne in 1471 to learn printing, intending to establish a press in Bruges and publish his own translations of various works. Upon his return to England, he set up a press in Westminster Abbey, serving as a printer for the monarchy until his death in 1491.
The Printing Revolution: Transforming the World
The widespread adoption of the printing press had profound consequences, fundamentally altering European society and beyond. The increased availability of printed materials led to a wider dissemination of ideas, challenging established power structures, particularly those of the Church. In 1501, Pope Alexander VI attempted to control the burgeoning printing industry by threatening excommunication for anyone printing manuscripts without Church approval. However, this attempt at censorship proved futile. Two decades later, the writings of figures like John Calvin and Martin Luther, disseminated rapidly through print, fueled the Protestant Reformation, bringing to fruition the very threat Pope Alexander had feared. Further challenging established dogma, Nicolaus Copernicus published On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, presenting a heliocentric model of the universe that contradicted Church doctrine and sparked the scientific revolution.
By 1605, the first official newspaper, Relation, was printed and distributed in Strasbourg, marking a new era of mass communication. Newspapers proliferated across Europe, solidifying the printing press’s role in fostering literacy, education, and the widespread availability of uniform information for ordinary people. The printing press was not simply an invention; it was a catalyst for societal transformation, democratizing knowledge and paving the way for the modern world.
Sources
The Invention of Printing. Theodore Low De Vinne.
500 Years of Printing. S.H. Steinberg.
Printer’s Error: An Irreverent History of Books. Rebecca Romney.
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham, Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin.
Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Patricia Buckley Ebrey.
